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{{Infobox WS|name=International Phonetic Alphabet |type=[Alphabet |languages=Reserved for [Phonetics and [Phoneme transcription of any language |time= to the present |fam1=[Romic alphabet |fam2=[Phonotypic alphabet |sample=IPA in IPA.svg |image_size=200px |IPAChartEng=include --> The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic transcription based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.International Phonetic Association (IPA), Handbook. The IPA is used by linguistics, speech and language pathology, foreign language teachers, singers, actors, lexicography, and translations.

The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, Intonation (linguistics), and the separation of words and syllables. To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a Cleft lip and palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extended IPA is commonly used.

As of 2007, there are 107 distinct letters and 56 diacritics and suprasegmentals in the IPA proper. Occasionally symbols are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association.

History In 1886, a group of France and United Kingdom language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known (from 1897 onwards) as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l’:fr:Association phonétique internationale).International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp 194–196 The original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but in order to make it usable for other languages, the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language."Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given different articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp 195–196) For example, the sound (sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter in English, but with the letter in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.

Since its creation, the organization of vowels and consonants in the IPA has remained largely the same. However, the alphabet itself has undergone a few revisions. The IPA Kiel Convention in 1989 made many changes to History of the IPA#1932. A minor revision took place in 1993, with the addition of the open-mid central unrounded vowel and the removal of symbols for Voiced consonant Implosive consonant,Pullum and Laduslaw, Phonetic Symbol Guide, pp 152 & 209 and the alphabet was last revised in May 2005, when a symbol for the labiodental flap was added.{{cite web] was created in 1990 and officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994.International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 186 Also, the VoQS (Voice Quality Symbols) were proposed in 1995 to provide a system for more detailed transcription of Phonation.Ball et al., The VoQS system

Description

The general principle of the IPA is to provide one symbol for each distinctive sound (or speech segment).“From its earliest days…the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide ‘a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word’.” (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27) This means that the IPA does not use letter combinations unless the sound being represented can be regarded as a sequence of two or more sounds. The IPA also does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them (a property known as "selectiveness"), and it does not use letters that represent multiple sounds, the way represents the consonant cluster in English. Additionally, in the IPA no letters have sound values that are context-dependent, such as Pronunciation of English c (and most other European languages).

The symbols of the IPA are 107 Letter (alphabet)s for consonants and vowels, 31 diacritics which further specify those sounds, and 19 Prosody (linguistics), which indicate such qualities as length (phonetics), Tone (linguistics), Stress (linguistics), and Intonation (linguistics).

Letterforms The symbols chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet. For this reason, most symbols are either Latin alphabet or Greek alphabet letters, or modifications thereof. However, there are symbols that are neither: for example, the symbol denoting the glottal stop has the form of a "gelded" question mark, and was originally an apostrophe (mark). Indeed, some symbols, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative , though modified to look more Latin, were inspired by glyphs in other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic alphabet letter , `ain).

Despite its preference for letters that harmonize with the Latin alphabet, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted symbols that do not have this property. For example, prior to 1989, the IPA symbols for click consonants were , , , and , all of which are clearly derived from Latin and Greek letters, as well as punctuation marks. However, except for , none of these symbols was reflective of contemporary practice among Khoisan languages (the main users of symbols for click consonants). As a result, they were replaced by the less Latin-like but more widespread symbols , , , , and at the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989.Laver, Principles of Phonetics,pp 174–175

Symbols and sounds The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, using as few non-Latin forms as possible. The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to “international usage”. Hence, the letters , , , (hard) , (hard) , , , , , , (voiceless) , , , , and have the values used in English; and the vowels from the Latin alphabet (, , , , ) correspond to the sound values of Latin: is like the vowel in mach'ine, is as in rule, etc. Other letters may differ from English, but are used with these values in other European languages, such as , , and .

This inventory was extended by using capital or cursive forms, diacritics, and rotation. There are also several derived from the Greek alphabet (, , , , , , and ), though the sound values may differ. , for example, is a vowel in Greek, but an only indirectly related consonant in the IPA.

The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters."The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 196) For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from the shape of the symbol (unlike, for example, in Visible Speech).

Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetics values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for Prosody (linguistics)s such as stress (linguistics) and tone (linguistics) that are often employed.

Usage ("sketch, unfinished work").Although the IPA offers over a hundred symbols for transcribing speech, it is not necessary to use all relevant symbols at the same time; it is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of accuracy. The most accurate kind of phonetic transcription, in which sounds are described in as much detail as the system allows, without any regard for the linguistic significance of the distinctions thus made, is known as narrow transcription. Anything else is termed broad transcription, though "broad" is obviously a relative term. Both kinds of transcriptions are generally enclosed in bracket (punctuation), but broad transcriptions are sometimes enclosed in slashes instead of brackets.

Broad transcription only distinguishes sounds which are considered different by speakers of a language. Sounds that may be pronounced differently between styles and dialects or depending on neighbouring sounds can be considered the "same" sound in the sense that they are allophones of the same phoneme. When a word is written as phonemes, it is usually enclosed in slash (punctuation). For example, the American pronunciation of the English word "little" may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as . This broad transcription merely identifies the separate phonetically relevant components of the word, and does not indicate the variety of corresponding sounds. On the other hand, the narrow transcription (placed between square brackets) specifies the way each sound is pronounced. A more narrow transcription of "little" would be different depending on the way it is said: , , or are just a few possibilities.

Use in dictionaries Many British English dictionaries, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words. However, most American (and some British) volumes use Pronunciation respelling for English supposed to be more intuitive for readers unfamiliar with the IPA. For example, the pronunciation-representation systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use "y" for IPA and "sh" for IPA , reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English.

Pronunciation respelling for English has detailed comparisons. (In IPA, represents the sound of the French u (as in tu), and represents the pair of sounds in gra'ss hut.)

One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single symbol for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary uses ŏ for the vowel in cot (kŏt) but ô for the one in caught (kôt). American regional dialects without the caught-cot merger generally pronounce cŏt like IPA (with an open central unrounded vowel) and côt like IPA (with an open back rounded vowel), whereas those with the merger pronounce the vowels ŏ and ô the same way (for example, like IPA in the Boston accent). Using one symbol for the vowel in cot (instead of having different symbols for different pronunciations of the o) enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.

The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in other countries and languages. Mass-market Czech multilingual dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language.

Educational initiative There is some interest in using native speakers to produce sound and video files of sufficient breadth to completely demonstrate all the speech sounds covered by the IPA. Such a project would encompass a large subset of the world's languages. This would aid linguistic and anthropologic research, as well as help teach language learning. Specifically, the development of a reference standard using the IPA (mirroring the idea of the Rosetta Stone) could be used in order to preserve intact examples of the sounds of human language. For education, the IPA can help standardize resources which prepare students and very young children (ages 6-36 months) for universal language acquisition through familiarization and subsequent imitation of the breadth of human speech sounds. |pages=233-238 |date=December 2004 --> Research by Flege, Mackay and Piske (2002) and Sebastián-Gallés, Echeverría and Bosch (2005) have shown that early exposure to extra phonetic sounds and uses improves later comprehension and pronunciation (accent).

Use in orthographies and capital variants IPA symbols have been incorporated into the standard orthographies of various languages, notably in Subsaharan Africa but in other regions as well. These include for example: Hausa language; Fula language; Akan language; Gbe languages; and Manding languages.

An example of capital letter forms for IPA symbols is Kabiyé language of northern Togo, which has (capital ). Other IPA-paired capitals include .

The abovementioned and other capital forms are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions.

Letters The International Phonetic Alphabet divides its letter symbols into three categories: Pulmonic egressive consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels."Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 3)International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 6. Each character is assigned a number, to prevent confusion between similar letters (such as and ), for example in printing manuscripts. Different categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers.

Consonants (pulmonic) A pulmonic egressive consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category.

The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.

{]|-|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"| rowspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;" | Place of articulation →! colspan="2" ]! colspan="4" | Coronal consonant! colspan="4" | Dorsal consonant! colspan="4" | Radical consonant! colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width: 4em;" | Glottal consonant|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em"! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Bilabial consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Labiodental consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Dental consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Alveolar consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Postalveolar consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Retroflex consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Palatal consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Velar consonant! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Uvular consonant! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Pharyngeal consonant! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Epiglottal consonant|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em"| style="font-size: 90%;" | Manner of articulation ↓]|    bilabial nasal|    labiodental nasal| colspan="3" |   alveolar nasal|    retroflex nasal| |   palatal nasal|    velar nasal| colspan="2" |    uvular nasal| colspan="6" style="background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Plosive consonant| voiceless bilabial plosive voiced bilabial plosive| voiceless labiodental plosive voiced labiodental plosive| colspan="3" |voiceless alveolar plosive voiced alveolar plosive| voiceless retroflex plosive voiced retroflex plosive| voiceless palatal plosive voiced palatal plosive| voiceless velar plosive voiced velar plosive| colspan="2" | voiceless uvular plosive voiced uvular plosive| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  | colspan="2" | epiglottal plosive| style="width: 1em;" | glottal stop| style="width: 1em; background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Fricative consonant| voiceless bilabial fricative voiced bilabial fricative| voiceless labiodental fricative voiced labiodental fricative| voiceless dental fricative voiced dental fricative| voiceless alveolar fricative voiced alveolar fricative| voiceless postalveolar fricative voiced postalveolar fricative| voiceless retroflex fricative voiced retroflex fricative| voiceless palatal fricative voiced palatal fricative| voiceless velar fricative voiced velar fricative| style="width: 1em;" | voiceless uvular fricative| rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | voiced uvular fricative| style="width: 1em;" | voiceless pharyngeal fricative| rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | voiced pharyngeal fricative| style="width: 1em;" | voiceless epiglottal fricative| rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | voiced epiglottal fricative| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | voiceless glottal fricative voiced glottal fricative|- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Approximant consonant|    bilabial approximant|    labiodental approximant| colspan="3" |    alveolar approximant|    retroflex approximant|    palatal approximant|    velar approximant|  |  |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Trill consonant|    bilabial trill|| colspan="3" |    alveolar trill|    retroflex trill|| style="background:#ccc" || colspan="2" |    uvular trill| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" || colspan="2" |    epiglottal trill| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Flap consonant| |   bilabial flap†|    labiodental flap†| colspan="3" |   alveolar tap|    retroflex flap|  | style="background:#ccc" || colspan="2" |  | colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  | colspan="2" |    epiglottal flap| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral consonant| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" || colspan="3" | voiceless alveolar lateral fricative voiced alveolar lateral fricative| voiceless retroflex lateral fricative   | voiceless palatal lateral fricative   | voiceless velar lateral fricative   | colspan="2" |  | colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral consonant| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" || colspan="3" |    alveolar lateral approximant|    retroflex lateral approximant|    palatal lateral approximant|    velar lateral approximant| colspan="2" |  | colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" ||- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral consonant| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  | colspan="3" |    alveolar lateral flap|    retroflex lateral flap|    palatal lateral flap|    velar lateral flap| colspan="2" |  | colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |  |}

Notes

Coarticulation Co-articulated consonant are sounds that involve two simultaneous Place of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). In English, the in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, because it is pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Other languages, such as French language and Swedish language, have different coarticulated consonants.

{| class="IPA wikitable"! colspan=2 | media:IPA co-articulated 2005.png|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | voiceless labial-velar fricative| Voiceless labialized velar approximant|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | labial-velar approximant| Voiced labialized velar approximant|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | labial-palatal approximant| Voiced labialized palatal approximant|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative| Voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced alveolo-palatal fricative| Voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless palatal-velar fricative| Voiceless "palatal-velar" fricative|}

Note

Affricates and double articulation Affricates and Doubly articulated consonant stops are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example for , paralleling ~ . The symbols for the palatal plosives, are often used as a convenience for or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.

{| class="IPA wikitable"! colspan=3 | Media:Affricate ligatures.png|-! Tie bar! Ligature! Description|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | t​͡s| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless alveolar affricate| voiceless alveolar affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | d​͡z| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced alveolar affricate| voiced alveolar affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | t​͡ʃ| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless postalveolar affricate| voiceless postalveolar affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | d​͡ʒ| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced postalveolar affricate| voiced postalveolar affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | t​͡ɕ| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate| voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | d​͡ʑ| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced alveolo-palatal affricate| voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless alveolar lateral affricate| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –| voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless labial-velar plosive| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –| voiceless labial-velar plosive|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced labial-velar plosive| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –| voiced labial-velar plosive|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | labial-velar nasal| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –| labial-velar nasal stop|}

Note

Consonants (non-pulmonic) Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds which are made without the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa) and Implosive consonant (found in languages such as Swahili language).

{| class="IPA wikitable"! colspan=6 | media:IPA non-pulmonic 2005.png|- valign=top! colspan="2" | Click consonant! colspan="2" | Implosive consonant! colspan="2" | Ejective consonant|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | bilabial click| Bilabial| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | voiced bilabial implosive| Bilabial| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | ʼ| For example:|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | dental click| Laminal alveolar ("dental")| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced alveolar implosive| Alveolar| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | bilabial ejective| Bilabial|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | postalveolar click| Apical (post-) alveolar ("retroflex")| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced palatal implosive| Palatal| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | alveolar ejective| Alveolar|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | palatal click| Laminal postalveolar ("palatal")| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced velar implosive| Velar| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | velar ejective| Velar|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | alveolar lateral click| Lateral coronal ("lateral")| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced uvular implosive| Uvular| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | alveolar ejective fricative| Alveolar fricative|}

Notes

Vowels ] The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is {{IPA|ɷ--> which has been standardised to {{IPA|ʊ-->. Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: {{IPA|ƍ--> for {{IPA|zʷ--> is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series {{IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ--> has been dropped; they are now written {{IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥--> respectively. There are also unsupported or ''[ad hoc'' symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as {{IPA|ƛ--> for {{IPA|t​͡ɬ--> (the "tl" in ''"Nahuatl"''). ===IPA extensions=== {{main article|Extended IPA--> The Extended IPA, also often abbreviated as extIPA, is a group of symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [Speech disorder. At the [IPA Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial set of symbols for the Extended IPA."At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp 186.) The Extended IPA was first published in 1990, and modified over the next few years before its official publication in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' in 1994 allowed it to be officially adopted by the [ICPLA."Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp 186-187. While its original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used it to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The Extended IPA has also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as nasalized voicing. Aside from the extIPA, another set of symbols is used for voice quality (VoQS), such as whispering. ==Sounds that have no symbols in the IPA== The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ''[ad hoc'' symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the retroflex lateral flap and the voiceless lateral fricative series, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. (See the grey symbols in the PDF chart.) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones."Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27) ===Consonants without letters=== Consonant sounds are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, {{IPA|β̞-->. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA]-->. A few languages such as Banda language have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪--> (bilabial trill and the dental sign). Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA]-->, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted {{IPA|r̠-->, just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. ===Vowels without letters=== The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering."The diacrtics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 16) For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|ʊ--> can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA]-->, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|æ--> as raised {{IPA]-->. True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞-->, while centered {{IPA]--> and {{IPA|ä--> are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are the rounded vowel vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as {{IPA|[ʏ̫-->. ==Symbol names== {{main article|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet--> An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent since there is not a one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound in broad transcription. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each character that are commonly used."...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 31) The symbols also have nonce names in the [Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls {{IPA|ɛ--> "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E". The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified symbols.{{ref label|Names|VII|--> Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as {{IPA|Voiced pharyngeal fricative-->, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section. For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA uses the name of the symbol from a certain language, for example, '''{{IPA|é-->''' is ''[Acute accent'', based on the name of the symbol in English and French. In non-traditional diacritics, the IPA often names a symbol according to an object it resembles, as '''{{IPA|d̪-->''' is called ''bridge''. ==ASCII transliterations, IPA influence on other phonetic alphabets== {{See also|Unicode and HTML--> Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the [ASCII character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include [Kirshenbaum, [SAMPA, and [X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. ==See also== {{Commons|International Phonetic Alphabet|International Phonetic Alphabet--> * [Phonetic transcription * [Articulatory phonetics * [List of phonetics topics * [TIPA provides IPA support for [LaTeX. * [SAMPA, [X-SAMPA and [Kirshenbaum are other methods of mapping IPA designations into [ASCII. * [Unicode Phonetic Symbols * [Semyon Novgorodov - the inventor of IPA-based [Yakut alphabet. * [IAST * [IPA chart for English ==Notes==
  • {{Note|IPA--> "The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers ... to the '[International Phonetic Association'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself (from the phrase 'International Phonetic Alphabet') that resistance seems pedantic. Context usually serves to disambiguate the two usages."Laver, ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 561
  • {{Note|Tone--> There are 7 basic tone marks, which are combined for contour tones; eight of these combinations are in common use.
  • {{Note|Digraph--> In contrast, English language sometimes uses combinations of two letters to represent single sounds, such as the [Digraph (orthography) ''sh'' and ''th'' for the sounds {{IPA|[ʃ--> and {{IPA]-->/{{IPA|ð-->, respectively.
  • {{Note|Selective--> For instance, flap consonant are two different kinds of [Place of articulation, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an [alveolar flap and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol (in this case, {{IPA-->) for both sounds. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a phon''em''ic alphabet, not a phon''et''ic one.
  • {{Note|Harmony--> "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognise makeshift letters; It recognises only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters."{{cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1949|title=The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages|location=London|publisher=University College, Department of Phonetics--> Cited in {{cite book|title=TIPA Manual|edition=Version 1.3|last=Rei|first=Fukui|date=25 March 2004|url=http://tug.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/tipa/tipaman.pdf|format=PDF|access-date=2007-06-24|location=Tokyo-->
  • {{Note|Question--> Technically, the symbol {{IPA|ʔ--> could be considered Latin-derived, since the question mark may have originated as "[question mark#Origins", an abbreviation of the Latin word ''[wiktionary:la:Quaestio'', "question".
  • {{Note|Names--> For example, p is called "Lower-case P" and χ is "Chi." International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 171
    • ==Citations== {{reflist|2--> ==References== {{Refbegin--> * {{Infobox WS|name=International Phonetic Alphabet |type=[Alphabet |languages=Reserved for [Phonetics and [Phoneme transcription of any language |time= to the present |fam1=[Romic alphabet |fam2=[Phonotypic alphabet |sample=IPA in IPA.svg |image_size=200px |IPAChartEng=include --> The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic transcription based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.International Phonetic Association (IPA), Handbook. The IPA is used by linguistics, speech and language pathology, foreign language teachers, singers, actors, lexicography, and translations.

    The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, Intonation (linguistics), and the separation of words and syllables. To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a Cleft lip and palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extended IPA is commonly used.

    As of 2007, there are 107 distinct letters and 56 diacritics and suprasegmentals in the IPA proper. Occasionally symbols are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association.

    History In 1886, a group of France and United Kingdom language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known (from 1897 onwards) as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l’:fr:Association phonétique internationale).International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp 194–196 The original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but in order to make it usable for other languages, the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language."Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given different articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp 195–196) For example, the sound (sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter in English, but with the letter in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.

    Since its creation, the organization of vowels and consonants in the IPA has remained largely the same. However, the alphabet itself has undergone a few revisions. The IPA Kiel Convention in 1989 made many changes to History of the IPA#1932. A minor revision took place in 1993, with the addition of the open-mid central unrounded vowel and the removal of symbols for Voiced consonant Implosive consonant,Pullum and Laduslaw, Phonetic Symbol Guide, pp 152 & 209 and the alphabet was last revised in May 2005, when a symbol for the labiodental flap was added.{{cite web] was created in 1990 and officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994.International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 186 Also, the VoQS (Voice Quality Symbols) were proposed in 1995 to provide a system for more detailed transcription of Phonation.Ball et al., The VoQS system

    Description

    The general principle of the IPA is to provide one symbol for each distinctive sound (or speech segment).“From its earliest days…the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide ‘a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word’.” (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27) This means that the IPA does not use letter combinations unless the sound being represented can be regarded as a sequence of two or more sounds. The IPA also does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them (a property known as "selectiveness"), and it does not use letters that represent multiple sounds, the way represents the consonant cluster in English. Additionally, in the IPA no letters have sound values that are context-dependent, such as Pronunciation of English c (and most other European languages).

    The symbols of the IPA are 107 Letter (alphabet)s for consonants and vowels, 31 diacritics which further specify those sounds, and 19 Prosody (linguistics), which indicate such qualities as length (phonetics), Tone (linguistics), Stress (linguistics), and Intonation (linguistics).

    Letterforms The symbols chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet. For this reason, most symbols are either Latin alphabet or Greek alphabet letters, or modifications thereof. However, there are symbols that are neither: for example, the symbol denoting the glottal stop has the form of a "gelded" question mark, and was originally an apostrophe (mark). Indeed, some symbols, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative , though modified to look more Latin, were inspired by glyphs in other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic alphabet letter , `ain).

    Despite its preference for letters that harmonize with the Latin alphabet, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted symbols that do not have this property. For example, prior to 1989, the IPA symbols for click consonants were , , , and , all of which are clearly derived from Latin and Greek letters, as well as punctuation marks. However, except for , none of these symbols was reflective of contemporary practice among Khoisan languages (the main users of symbols for click consonants). As a result, they were replaced by the less Latin-like but more widespread symbols , , , , and at the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989.Laver, Principles of Phonetics,pp 174–175

    Symbols and sounds The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, using as few non-Latin forms as possible. The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to “international usage”. Hence, the letters , , , (hard) , (hard) , , , , , , (voiceless) , , , , and have the values used in English; and the vowels from the Latin alphabet (, , , , ) correspond to the sound values of Latin: is like the vowel in mach'ine, is as in rule, etc. Other letters may differ from English, but are used with these values in other European languages, such as , , and .

    This inventory was extended by using capital or cursive forms, diacritics, and rotation. There are also several derived from the Greek alphabet (, , , , , , and ), though the sound values may differ. , for example, is a vowel in Greek, but an only indirectly related consonant in the IPA.

    The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters."The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 196) For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from the shape of the symbol (unlike, for example, in Visible Speech).

    Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetics values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for Prosody (linguistics)s such as stress (linguistics) and tone (linguistics) that are often employed.

    Usage ("sketch, unfinished work").Although the IPA offers over a hundred symbols for transcribing speech, it is not necessary to use all relevant symbols at the same time; it is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of accuracy. The most accurate kind of phonetic transcription, in which sounds are described in as much detail as the system allows, without any regard for the linguistic significance of the distinctions thus made, is known as narrow transcription. Anything else is termed broad transcription, though "broad" is obviously a relative term. Both kinds of transcriptions are generally enclosed in bracket (punctuation), but broad transcriptions are sometimes enclosed in slashes instead of brackets.

    Broad transcription only distinguishes sounds which are considered different by speakers of a language. Sounds that may be pronounced differently between styles and dialects or depending on neighbouring sounds can be considered the "same" sound in the sense that they are allophones of the same phoneme. When a word is written as phonemes, it is usually enclosed in slash (punctuation). For example, the American pronunciation of the English word "little" may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as . This broad transcription merely identifies the separate phonetically relevant components of the word, and does not indicate the variety of corresponding sounds. On the other hand, the narrow transcription (placed between square brackets) specifies the way each sound is pronounced. A more narrow transcription of "little" would be different depending on the way it is said: , , or are just a few possibilities.

    Use in dictionaries Many British English dictionaries, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words. However, most American (and some British) volumes use Pronunciation respelling for English supposed to be more intuitive for readers unfamiliar with the IPA. For example, the pronunciation-representation systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use "y" for IPA and "sh" for IPA , reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English.

    Pronunciation respelling for English has detailed comparisons. (In IPA, represents the sound of the French u (as in tu), and represents the pair of sounds in gra'ss hut.)

    One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single symbol for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary uses ŏ for the vowel in cot (kŏt) but ô for the one in caught (kôt). American regional dialects without the caught-cot merger generally pronounce cŏt like IPA (with an open central unrounded vowel) and côt like IPA (with an open back rounded vowel), whereas those with the merger pronounce the vowels ŏ and ô the same way (for example, like IPA in the Boston accent). Using one symbol for the vowel in cot (instead of having different symbols for different pronunciations of the o) enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.

    The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in other countries and languages. Mass-market Czech multilingual dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language.

    Educational initiative There is some interest in using native speakers to produce sound and video files of sufficient breadth to completely demonstrate all the speech sounds covered by the IPA. Such a project would encompass a large subset of the world's languages. This would aid linguistic and anthropologic research, as well as help teach language learning. Specifically, the development of a reference standard using the IPA (mirroring the idea of the Rosetta Stone) could be used in order to preserve intact examples of the sounds of human language. For education, the IPA can help standardize resources which prepare students and very young children (ages 6-36 months) for universal language acquisition through familiarization and subsequent imitation of the breadth of human speech sounds. |pages=233-238 |date=December 2004 --> Research by Flege, Mackay and Piske (2002) and Sebastián-Gallés, Echeverría and Bosch (2005) have shown that early exposure to extra phonetic sounds and uses improves later comprehension and pronunciation (accent).

    Use in orthographies and capital variants IPA symbols have been incorporated into the standard orthographies of various languages, notably in Subsaharan Africa but in other regions as well. These include for example: Hausa language; Fula language; Akan language; Gbe languages; and Manding languages.

    An example of capital letter forms for IPA symbols is Kabiyé language of northern Togo, which has (capital ). Other IPA-paired capitals include .

    The abovementioned and other capital forms are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions.

    Letters The International Phonetic Alphabet divides its letter symbols into three categories: Pulmonic egressive consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels."Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 3)International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 6. Each character is assigned a number, to prevent confusion between similar letters (such as and ), for example in printing manuscripts. Different categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers.

    Consonants (pulmonic) A pulmonic egressive consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category.

    The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.

    {]|-|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em"| rowspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;" | Place of articulation →! colspan="2" ]! colspan="4" | Coronal consonant! colspan="4" | Dorsal consonant! colspan="4" | Radical consonant! colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="width: 4em;" | Glottal consonant|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em"! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Bilabial consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Labiodental consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Dental consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Alveolar consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Postalveolar consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Retroflex consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Palatal consonant! rowspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Velar consonant! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Uvular consonant! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Pharyngeal consonant! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 4em;" | Epiglottal consonant|- style="vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em"| style="font-size: 90%;" | Manner of articulation ↓]|    bilabial nasal|    labiodental nasal| colspan="3" |   alveolar nasal|    retroflex nasal| |   palatal nasal|    velar nasal| colspan="2" |    uvular nasal| colspan="6" style="background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Plosive consonant| voiceless bilabial plosive voiced bilabial plosive| voiceless labiodental plosive voiced labiodental plosive| colspan="3" |voiceless alveolar plosive voiced alveolar plosive| voiceless retroflex plosive voiced retroflex plosive| voiceless palatal plosive voiced palatal plosive| voiceless velar plosive voiced velar plosive| colspan="2" | voiceless uvular plosive voiced uvular plosive| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  | colspan="2" | epiglottal plosive| style="width: 1em;" | glottal stop| style="width: 1em; background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Fricative consonant| voiceless bilabial fricative voiced bilabial fricative| voiceless labiodental fricative voiced labiodental fricative| voiceless dental fricative voiced dental fricative| voiceless alveolar fricative voiced alveolar fricative| voiceless postalveolar fricative voiced postalveolar fricative| voiceless retroflex fricative voiced retroflex fricative| voiceless palatal fricative voiced palatal fricative| voiceless velar fricative voiced velar fricative| style="width: 1em;" | voiceless uvular fricative| rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | voiced uvular fricative| style="width: 1em;" | voiceless pharyngeal fricative| rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | voiced pharyngeal fricative| style="width: 1em;" | voiceless epiglottal fricative| rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | voiced epiglottal fricative| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | voiceless glottal fricative voiced glottal fricative|- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Approximant consonant|    bilabial approximant|    labiodental approximant| colspan="3" |    alveolar approximant|    retroflex approximant|    palatal approximant|    velar approximant|  |  |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Trill consonant|    bilabial trill|| colspan="3" |    alveolar trill|    retroflex trill|| style="background:#ccc" || colspan="2" |    uvular trill| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" || colspan="2" |    epiglottal trill| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Flap consonant| |   bilabial flap†|    labiodental flap†| colspan="3" |   alveolar tap|    retroflex flap|  | style="background:#ccc" || colspan="2" |  | colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  | colspan="2" |    epiglottal flap| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral consonant| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" || colspan="3" | voiceless alveolar lateral fricative voiced alveolar lateral fricative| voiceless retroflex lateral fricative   | voiceless palatal lateral fricative   | voiceless velar lateral fricative   | colspan="2" |  | colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |  |- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral consonant| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" || colspan="3" |    alveolar lateral approximant|    retroflex lateral approximant|    palatal lateral approximant|    velar lateral approximant| colspan="2" |  | colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" ||- style="font-size: 120%;"! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | Lateral consonant| colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |  | colspan="3" |    alveolar lateral flap|    retroflex lateral flap|    palatal lateral flap|    velar lateral flap| colspan="2" |  | colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |  |}

    Notes

    Coarticulation Co-articulated consonant are sounds that involve two simultaneous Place of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). In English, the in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, because it is pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Other languages, such as French language and Swedish language, have different coarticulated consonants.

    {| class="IPA wikitable"! colspan=2 | media:IPA co-articulated 2005.png|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | voiceless labial-velar fricative| Voiceless labialized velar approximant|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | labial-velar approximant| Voiced labialized velar approximant|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | labial-palatal approximant| Voiced labialized palatal approximant|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative| Voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced alveolo-palatal fricative| Voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless palatal-velar fricative| Voiceless "palatal-velar" fricative|}

    Note

    Affricates and double articulation Affricates and Doubly articulated consonant stops are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example for , paralleling ~ . The symbols for the palatal plosives, are often used as a convenience for or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.

    {| class="IPA wikitable"! colspan=3 | Media:Affricate ligatures.png|-! Tie bar! Ligature! Description|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | t​͡s| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless alveolar affricate| voiceless alveolar affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | d​͡z| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced alveolar affricate| voiced alveolar affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | t​͡ʃ| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless postalveolar affricate| voiceless postalveolar affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | d​͡ʒ| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced postalveolar affricate| voiced postalveolar affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | t​͡ɕ| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate| voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | d​͡ʑ| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced alveolo-palatal affricate| voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless alveolar lateral affricate| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –| voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiceless labial-velar plosive| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –| voiceless labial-velar plosive|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced labial-velar plosive| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –| voiced labial-velar plosive|-| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | labial-velar nasal| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |  –| labial-velar nasal stop|}

    Note

    Consonants (non-pulmonic) Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds which are made without the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa) and Implosive consonant (found in languages such as Swahili language).

    {| class="IPA wikitable"! colspan=6 | media:IPA non-pulmonic 2005.png|- valign=top! colspan="2" | Click consonant! colspan="2" | Implosive consonant! colspan="2" | Ejective consonant|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | bilabial click| Bilabial| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | voiced bilabial implosive| Bilabial| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | ʼ| For example:|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | dental click| Laminal alveolar ("dental")| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced alveolar implosive| Alveolar| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | bilabial ejective| Bilabial|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | postalveolar click| Apical (post-) alveolar ("retroflex")| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced palatal implosive| Palatal| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | alveolar ejective| Alveolar|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | palatal click| Laminal postalveolar ("palatal")| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced velar implosive| Velar| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | velar ejective| Velar|- valign=top| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | alveolar lateral click| Lateral coronal ("lateral")| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | voiced uvular implosive| Uvular| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | alveolar ejective fricative| Alveolar fricative|}

    Notes

    Vowels ] The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is {{IPA|ɷ--> which has been standardised to {{IPA|ʊ-->. Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: {{IPA|ƍ--> for {{IPA|zʷ--> is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series {{IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ--> has been dropped; they are now written {{IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥--> respectively. There are also unsupported or ''[ad hoc'' symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as {{IPA|ƛ--> for {{IPA|t​͡ɬ--> (the "tl" in ''"Nahuatl"''). ===IPA extensions=== {{main article|Extended IPA--> The Extended IPA, also often abbreviated as extIPA, is a group of symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [Speech disorder. At the [IPA Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial set of symbols for the Extended IPA."At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp 186.) The Extended IPA was first published in 1990, and modified over the next few years before its official publication in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' in 1994 allowed it to be officially adopted by the [ICPLA."Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp 186-187. While its original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used it to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The Extended IPA has also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as nasalized voicing. Aside from the extIPA, another set of symbols is used for voice quality (VoQS), such as whispering. ==Sounds that have no symbols in the IPA== The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ''[ad hoc'' symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the retroflex lateral flap and the voiceless lateral fricative series, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. (See the grey symbols in the PDF chart.) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones."Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27) ===Consonants without letters=== Consonant sounds are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, {{IPA|β̞-->. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA]-->. A few languages such as Banda language have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪--> (bilabial trill and the dental sign). Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA]-->, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted {{IPA|r̠-->, just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. ===Vowels without letters=== The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering."The diacrtics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 16) For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|ʊ--> can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA]-->, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|æ--> as raised {{IPA]-->. True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞-->, while centered {{IPA]--> and {{IPA|ä--> are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are the rounded vowel vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as {{IPA|[ʏ̫-->. ==Symbol names== {{main article|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet--> An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent since there is not a one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound in broad transcription. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each character that are commonly used."...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 31) The symbols also have nonce names in the [Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls {{IPA|ɛ--> "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E". The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified symbols.{{ref label|Names|VII|--> Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as {{IPA|Voiced pharyngeal fricative-->, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section. For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA uses the name of the symbol from a certain language, for example, '''{{IPA|é-->''' is ''[Acute accent'', based on the name of the symbol in English and French. In non-traditional diacritics, the IPA often names a symbol according to an object it resembles, as '''{{IPA|d̪-->''' is called ''bridge''. ==ASCII transliterations, IPA influence on other phonetic alphabets== {{See also|Unicode and HTML--> Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the [ASCII character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include [Kirshenbaum, [SAMPA, and [X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. ==See also== {{Commons|International Phonetic Alphabet|International Phonetic Alphabet--> * [Phonetic transcription * [Articulatory phonetics * [List of phonetics topics * [TIPA provides IPA support for [LaTeX. * [SAMPA, [X-SAMPA and [Kirshenbaum are other methods of mapping IPA designations into [ASCII. * [Unicode Phonetic Symbols * [Semyon Novgorodov - the inventor of IPA-based [Yakut alphabet. * [IAST * [IPA chart for English ==Notes==
  • {{Note|IPA--> "The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers ... to the '[International Phonetic Association'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself (from the phrase 'International Phonetic Alphabet') that resistance seems pedantic. Context usually serves to disambiguate the two usages."Laver, ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 561
  • {{Note|Tone--> There are 7 basic tone marks, which are combined for contour tones; eight of these combinations are in common use.
  • {{Note|Digraph--> In contrast, English language sometimes uses combinations of two letters to represent single sounds, such as the [Digraph (orthography) ''sh'' and ''th'' for the sounds {{IPA|[ʃ--> and {{IPA]-->/{{IPA|ð-->, respectively.
  • {{Note|Selective--> For instance, flap consonant are two different kinds of [Place of articulation, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an [alveolar flap and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol (in this case, {{IPA-->) for both sounds. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a phon''em''ic alphabet, not a phon''et''ic one.
  • {{Note|Harmony--> "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognise makeshift letters; It recognises only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters."{{cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1949|title=The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages|location=London|publisher=University College, Department of Phonetics--> Cited in {{cite book|title=TIPA Manual|edition=Version 1.3|last=Rei|first=Fukui|date=25 March 2004|url=http://tug.ctan.org/tex-archive/fonts/tipa/tipaman.pdf|format=PDF|access-date=2007-06-24|location=Tokyo-->
  • {{Note|Question--> Technically, the symbol {{IPA|ʔ--> could be considered Latin-derived, since the question mark may have originated as "[question mark#Origins", an abbreviation of the Latin word ''[wiktionary:la:Quaestio'', "question".
  • {{Note|Names--> For example, p is called "Lower-case P" and χ is "Chi." International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p. 171
    • ==Citations== {{reflist|2--> ==References== {{Refbegin--> *

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